Journeyman Historian Core Lessons in Writing

Conclusions are as important as any other portion or a paper. They are tasked with wrapping up the paper by providing a brief summary that restates the thesis and important points. Read through the lesson and share your thoughts on it in your journal.


This lesson is derived from Walden University's Writing Center.


Writing a Conclusion

A conclusion is an important part of the paper; it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper. It accomplishes this by stepping back from the specifics in order to view the bigger picture of the document. In other words, it is reminding the reader of the main argument. For most course papers, it is usually one paragraph that simply and succinctly restates the main ideas and arguments, pulling everything together to help clarify the thesis of the paper. A conclusion does not introduce new ideas; instead, it should clarify the intent and importance of the paper. It can also suggest possible future research on the topic.


An Easy Checklist for Writing a Conclusion

- Is the thesis of the paper accurately restated here (but not repeated verbatim)?

It is important to remind the reader of the thesis of the paper so he is reminded of the argument and solutions you proposed.

- Are the main points of the paper addressed and pulled together?

Think of the main points as puzzle pieces, and the conclusion is where they all fit together to create a bigger picture. The reader should walk away with the bigger picture in mind.

- Do you remind the reader of the importance of the topic?

Make sure that the paper places its findings in the context of real social change.

- Is there a sense of closure?

Make sure the reader has a distinct sense that the paper has come to an end. It is important to not leave the reader hanging. (You don’t want her to have flip-the-page syndrome, where the reader turns the page, expecting the paper to continue. The paper should naturally come to an end.)

- Do you avoid presenting new information?

No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion. It is simply a review of the material that is already present in the paper. The only new idea would be the suggesting of a direction for future research.


Conclusion Example

As addressed in my analysis of recent research, the advantages of a later starting time for high school students significantly outweigh the disadvantages. A later starting time would allow teens more time to sleep--something that is important for their physical and mental health--and ultimately improve their academic performance and behavior. The added transportation costs that result from this change can be absorbed through energy savings. The beneficial effects on the students’ academic performance and behavior validate this decision, but its effect on student motivation is still unknown. I would encourage an in-depth look at the reactions of students to such a change. This sort of study would help determine the actual effects of a later start time on the time management and sleep habits of students.

After you have completed your draft, the next step is to revise your paper to cut out unnecessary or repetitive aspects you have written. In revising, it is natural that you include a proofreading portion make sure that you do no have any grammatical or spelling errors. Read through the following lesson and share your thoughts in your journal.


This lesson is derived from Walden University's Writing Center.


Overall Revision Strategies

Here are some revision strategies to keep in mind:

Adjust your expectations.

Be aware that the first draft of your writing will need to go through the revision process. Even experienced and professional writers are not able to produce their best document the first time.

Plan for revision time.

Give yourself time away from the document—an hour, a day, a week—so that you can look back at the document again with fresh eyes.

Think big picture.

Remember that the revision process focuses on your overall ideas and your overall organization. Use the revision checklist to check for this.

Set a goal for your revisions.

Think critically about your revisions and set clear writing goals to address skill development. If you have difficulty with conclusions, establish a writing goal to review the Writing Center’s resources on conclusions and apply those strategies to your next project. If you struggle with word choice, consider a goal where you use a thesaurus or other strategies to improve academic diction and then set up a paper review appointment to receive feedback on your revisions. For grammar errors, make a goal to keep a grammar revision journal of common errors, the required rule, and possible revisions.

Become a peer reviewer.

Start a writing group or exchange drafts with some of your peers. Becoming a careful reader and responder to other people’s work will help you to more critically read and revise your own writing.

Read your writing out loud.

Read your writing out loud to yourself or to someone else. Alternatively, have someone read your writing out loud to you. This will give you a chance to hear the words outside of your own head and give you the opportunity to listen for how the ideas and the words flow together and/or where they become confusing.

Save each draft as its own separate document.

Each time you revise a draft, save it as a new file. That way, if you decide to go back to something you wrote previously, you have access to the previous version.


Proofreading

Introduction

Proofreading involves reading your document to correct the smaller typographical, grammatical, and spelling errors. Proofreading is usually the very last step you take before sending off the final draft of your work for evaluation or publication. It comes after you have addressed larger matters such as style, content, citations, and organization during revising. Like revising, proofreading demands a close and careful reading of the text. Although quite tedious, it is a necessary and worthwhile exercise that ensures that your reader is not distracted by careless mistakes.


Tips for Proofreading

Distance yourself from your work.

Set aside the document for a few hours or even a few days before proofreading. Taking a bit of time off enables you to see the document anew. A document that might have seemed well written one day may not look the same when you review it a few days later. Taking a step back provides you with a fresh (and possibly more constructive) perspective.

Proofread at a specific time of day.

Make a conscious effort to proofread at a specific time of day (or night!) when you are most alert to spotting errors. If you are a morning person, try proofreading then. If you are a night owl, try proofreading at this time.

Print a hard copy of the text.

Reviewing the document in a different format and having the ability to manually circle and underline errors can help you take the perspective of the reader, identifying issues that you might ordinarily miss. Additionally, a hard copy gives you a different visual format (away from your computer screen) to see the words anew.

Do not rely exclusively on grammar and spelling checkers.

Although useful, programs like Word's spell-checker and Grammarly can misidentify or not catch errors. Although grammar checkers give relevant tips and recommendations, they are only helpful if you know how to apply the feedback they provide. Similarly, MS Word's spell checker may not catch words that are spelled correctly but used in the wrong context (e.g., differentiating between their, they're, and there). Beyond that, sometimes a spell checker may mark a correct word as wrong simply because the word is not found in the spell checker's dictionary. To supplement tools such as these, be sure to use dictionaries and other grammar resources to check your work. You can also make appointments with our writing instructors for feedback concerning grammar and word choice, as well as other areas of your writing!

Read your text aloud and slowly.

Reading a text aloud allows you to identify errors that you might gloss over when reading silently. This technique is particularly useful for identifying run-on and other types of awkward sentences. If you can, read for an audience. Ask a friend or family member to listen to your work and provide feedback, checking for comprehension, organization, and flow.

Have someone else read aloud to you.

Hearing someone else read your work allows you to simply listen without having to focus on the written words yourself. You can be a more critical listener when you are engaged in only the audible words.

Go through the paper backwards.

By reading the document backwards, sentence by sentence, you are able to focus only on the words and sentences without paying attention to the context or content.

Use a ruler or blank piece of paper.

Placing a ruler or a blank sheet of paper under each line as you read it will give your eyes a manageable amount of text to read.

Check for familiar errors.

If you can identify one type of error that you struggle with (perhaps something that a faculty member has commented on in your previous work), go through the document and look specifically for these types of errors. Learn from your mistakes, too, by mastering the problem concept so that it does not appear in subsequent drafts.

Proofread for one type of error at a time.

Related to the previous strategy of checking for familiar errors, you can proofread by focusing on one error at a time. For instance, if commas are your most frequent problem, go through the paper checking just that one problem. Then proofread again for the next most frequent problem.

Ask someone else to look over the document.

After you have finished making corrections, have someone else scan the document for errors. A different set of eyes and a mind that is detached from the writing can identify errors that you may have overlooked.

Proofreading is not just about errors.

Remember that proofreading is not just about errors. You want to polish your sentences, making them smooth, interesting, and clear. Watch for very long sentences, since they may be less clear than shorter, more direct sentences. Pay attention to the rhythm of your writing; try to use sentences of varying lengths and patterns. Look for unnecessary phrases, repetition, and awkward spots.

Since we are in the business of studying other's work, it is important for the Historian to give credit where credit is do. In our writing, this involves citing any sources of information that we used that are not our own original thoughts. This includes direct quotes, and large amounts of uncommon information that although reworded, were derived from another, outside source. For our writing here, we will use two methods to cite out papers, MLA Format, and APA Format. I'll discuss MLA here, and APA in the next lesson. Read through the lesson and share your understanding of the material, and why you feel it's important to cite your sources.

This lesson is derived from Essaypro.com's MLA Format Section


MLA Format:

MLA stands for Modern Language Association and is most commonly used to reference liberal arts and humanities. An MLA style paper typically includes a header, in-text citations, and a Works Cited page at the end of the paper.

General Format Guidelines

An MLA style paper has the following rules:

- Your font size should be 12
- Recommended (preferred) font is Times New Roman
- Your entire paper should be double spaced
- 1” margins on all sides
- Indent your paragraphs a half an inch (Tab key)
- Use italics throughout the essay for titles of longer works.
- Insert your last name and a page number on the upper right-hand corner. (Sometimes the page number is omitted on the first page.)

Heading

Your header should include the following in the respective order:

- Name
- Mentor's Name name
- Course
- Date

Like the rest of the essay, it should be double-spaced. After this, on the next line, center the title of your paper in the Title Case. Use quotations or italics in your title only if you are referring to other works. As mentioned prior, include your name and page number in the upper right (unless specified otherwise by your instructor). Sometimes instructors require section headings to improve readability.


Title Page

The MLA format does not require a specific title page. However, if you don’t receive any specific instructions bar “have an MLA format cover page,” then a good template is this:

- The whole page should be double spaced
- Skip two lines and include the name of your institution.
- One-third of the page down include your title and a subtitle if you have one.
- Skip several lines down and type your full name, your course name, instructor name and the date.


In-Text Citation

When paraphrasing or quoting an external source, you must include an MLA format in-text citation. In-text citations are called “parenthetical” citations.

General Guidelines

- You do not need MLA style citation for well-known quotations or common knowledge.
- Any information that you put as an in-text citation should appear in your Works Cited page.
- Your parenthetical citations should go directly after the quote.
- A parenthetical citation is two things: Author’s last name and specific page number separated by a comma.
- If the author’s last name or page number is mentioned in the body of the sentence, then it can be omitted from the parenthetical citation.


Here are examples for each type of in-text citation:

Author’s name and page number:

- As a citation: The coffee bean is believed to be the most influential cash crop (Novak 12).
- With the author’s name in the text: Novak states that coffee bean was the most influential cash crop (12).
- With multiple authors: The coffee bean is believed to be the most influential cash crop (Novak, Smith, and Johnson 12).
- With more than three authors: The coffee bean is believed to be the most influential cash crop (Novak et al. 12).
- Article title and page number: Citations with no authors or contributors are cited with the titles of the piece. Italicize novels and longer works and put articles in quotes. If the title is too long, abbreviate the title with the same letter.
- Cited article: Caffeine is incredibly damaging to the nervous system (“Coffee Bean Revolution” 12)
- Cited novel: “At the bottom of her heart, however, she was waiting for something to happen” (Flaubert 81)

Author and no page number

- No page number: The coffee bean is believed to be the most influential cash crop (Novak).
- Chapter of a book or subheading of an article: “Coffee was the first step to globalization” (Novak “Globalization”)


Works Cited

An MLA style annotated bibliography is titled “Works Cited” in the top center of references list. Keep in mind that your MLA format works cited page should have hanging indents on each citation. The citations are also in alphabetical order and should match your parenthetical citations. Here are formats and examples from our qualified writer of common MLA format bibliography entry types:

Web Article (with author): Last, First Middle Initial. “Article Title.”Website Title. Website Publisher, Date Month Year Published. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.

Example: Quint, Peter. “Turning Screws.” New York Times. New York times. 17.02.2017. Web. 18.03.2017

Web Article (without author): “Website Article.” Website Title. Website Publisher, Date Month Year Published. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.

Example: “Turning Screws.” New York Times. New York times. 17.02.2017. Web. 18.03.2017

Books: Last, First M. Book Title. City of Publication: Publisher, Year Published. Print.

Example: James, Henry. The Turn of the Screw. New York: Penguin Publish, 2007. Print

Newspaper: Last, First M. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title [City] Date Month Year Published: Page(s). Print.

Example: Quint, Peter. “Turning Screws.” Pittsburgh Press 7 Mar. 1990:12-14. Print.

Journal: Last, First M. “Article Title.” Journal Title Series Volume.Issue (Year Published): Page(s). Database Name. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.

Example: Quint, Peter. “Turning Screws.” Journal of Engineering. 28.1 (2012): 41-54. Print.

This is another acceptable format to cite the sources you use in your papers. Like MLA, the APA will not only cover the formatting characteristics of your paper but also provides the manner in which you can identify unoriginal ideas that you have used in your work. Note the differences between the two styles of formatting and determine which style you like to use better. Remain consistent in it's usage. Read through the following lesson and share your thoughts in your journal.


This lesson is derived from Essaypro.com's APA Format Section


APA Format

APA stands for American Psychological Association. It is a citation style that is most commonly used to format papers on psychology. Additionally, this style is utilized in works on humanities, education, nursing, and social sciences. EssayPro's handy guide will show you how to properly format your paper in APA style.

How to write in APA

The general format consists of the following rules:

- Clear font: Times New Roman 12pt font double spaced
- 1” margins on all sides
- Include heading on the top of every page that includes the shortened title of your essay (>50 characters)
- Use a clear font that is highly readable
- Insert a page number on the right
- APA recommends using 12 pt. Times New Roman font


Additionally, the APA essay format is divided into four parts:

- Title Page
- Abstract
- Main Body
- References

The cover page is the first page of your essay. The abstract is the next page, then the main body. The last page is the bibliography otherwise called the “References” page.


Title Page

The title page, also called the cover page, should include the title of your paper, your name, and the name of your institution.

You should include a page header on the left of your paper. Your page number should go on the right.

All text in your article, including the title page, should be double-spaced.

Your title should be centered in the upper half of the page. APA recommends keeping the title short (≤12 words). Make sure your title contains no abbreviations or words with no purpose.


Heading examples

Example of a BAD title: How is AAV Harmful to the American Education System and Possible Solutions to the Issue

Example of a GOOD title: African American Vernacular and the American Education System

The bad example contains 15 words and an abbreviation. The good example is shorter and contains no abbreviation.

After the title, type your full name: first, middle initial(s), and last name(s). Do not, however, include titles such as Dr. or degrees (Ph.D.). Beneath your name, type your institutional affiliation. That would be your school, university, or anything else of that matter.


Abstract

Your abstract should be on the following page after your title page. Your abstract should already include the header on the top left.

On the first line, center the word “Abstract”. It should not have any additional formatting (no bold, italics, underlining, quotation marks, etc.)

Next, write an abstract. Your abstract is a concise summary of what your research was about. It should contain:

- Research question
- Participants
- Methods
- Results
- Data analysis
- Conclusion

Your abstract should be between 150-250 words.

It is optional to list keywords in your abstract. You have to create a new paragraph and type keywords in italics and then list your keywords.


Style Guide with Examples

The last page of your paper should be a References page. Here are the most common citation examples:

How to Cite Books: Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year of Publication). The title of work. Publisher City, State: Publisher.

Example: Miller, A.(1953). The Crucible. New York: Viking Press.

How to Cite E-Books: Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year of Publication). The title of work [E-Reader Version]. Retrieved from {link}

Example: Miller, A. (2008). The Crucible [Kindle Version]. Retrieved from {link}

How to Cite a Film: Producer [last name], A.A. [first name middle initial] (Producer), & Director, A.A. (Director). (Release Year). The title of motion picture [Motion Picture]. Country of Origin: Studio

Example: Hitchcock, A. (Producer & Director). (1960). Psycho [Motion Picture]. United States: Paramount.

How to Cite a Photograph: Photographer, A.A.. (Photographer). (Year, Month Date of Publication). Title of photograph [photograph]. City, State of publication: Publisher/museum.

Example: Adams, A. (Photographer). (1942). Close-up of leaves In Glacier National Park (1942) [photograph]. New York, NY: New-York Historical Society.

How to Cite a Website: Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month Date of Publication). Article title.
Retrieved from {link}

Example: Monbiot, G. (2014, October 14). The Age of Loneliness is Killing Us. Retrieved from {link}

How to Cite a Journal: Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Publication Year). Article title. Periodical Title, Volume (Issue), pp.-pp.

Example: Bellamy, M. (1999). Show-Business: A Chain of Inspiration. Music Theory Today: Influence of Alternative Rock. 13(3-4), 147-148.

How to Cite a Newspaper: Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month Date of Publication). Article title. Magazine Title, pp. xx-xx.

Example: Maly, S. (2017, January 15). How to Write an Essay Online APA Style. Essaypro, pp 9-12.


APA Citation Guide

When constructing APA Style in-text citations, you need to do the following:

- Capitalize author name and initial.
- When referring to the title of the source, capitalize all the letters.
- Italicize or underline titles of longer works such as books, movies, documentaries, music albums, and television series.
- Put quotations around articles, television series episodes, and song titles.
- In short quotes (>40 words) you will want to introduce the phrase with the author’s last name and include the date of publication in parenthesis. At the end of the quote, you will need to add a page number for reference.
- If the author is not named, place the author’s name, year of publication, and page number in parentheses after the quotation.
- In quotations that are over 40 words, block quotes are used. Indent the quote ½ from the left margin in a new paragraph. The citation should come after the punctuation mark.
- When summarizing or paraphrasing, you input your in-text reference (author and year of publication). The page number is optional.

Reference Page

A References page usually appears at the end of the paper. In other paper formatting styles, it may be called “Bibliography” or “Works Cited.”

- Center “References” at the top of your page. Do not boldface, underline, or put quotation marks around it.
- Your reference page should be double-spaced.
- All lines after the first line in your reference list should have a hanging indent. Indent one-half an inch from the left margin.
- Authors names are “last name, first name.” If the piece has more than one author, list their names as initials.
- Your list should be in alphabetical order.
- Italicize books and journals. Put quotes around articles and essays.

The previous lessons are all geared to teach writing either a high school level essay or a college level term paper. Either is sufficient in completing the writing assignments in the Guild. There is one more method I will bring up here, and provide a reference to structuring your future research papers in this manner, should you choose to do so. This method is for writing a graduate level thesis, and although it is not necessary to learn this method to work through the Guild, some may choose to challenge themselves academically, and this is the most rigorous method to do so. Since it is the least likely method one will choose to engage in, I'll provide a link to USC's Research Library that provides an outline of how to structure a research paper in this format. I've included a screen shot of the main page:



Take a look at the different tabs. The numbered tabs are components for building your paper. Each has sub-tabs to explain the purpose of each section. Read through them and the additional tabs provided to help structure your paper in this format.


Here is the link to the website: Graduate Level Writing Structure

Congratulations on finishing up the Journeyman Core Lessons in Writing. Please note that much of the work for developing your writing rests with you, the guild member. Working through these lessons will help prepare you to begin producing scholarly level papers, but like any skill, this requires practice on your part. Keep at it, listen to the suggestions of your mentors, and have fun with it. You'll be surprised how much your writing will improve!

One more thing of note, when you begin your essay writing here in the future, remember that we will check for plagiarism. Please cite all of your sources and don't present anything that doesn't belong to you as your own writing. Anything found to be plagiarized will initially be returned for correction. Future occurrences of plagiarism can result in expulsion from the guild. Please cite your sources